The Preface of the Article “Review books: Phoneme, Grape Poetry, Apprehension “
By Mohsen Hashtroudi
The new art schools, for instance from impressionist painting style to surrealist or
expressionist that each has been somehow impressive in literature, have not appeared
uniformly in various arts and in particular the period of their efficacy has been more or less
short on these arts and has not left high durable and persistent impression (just on music,
architecture and statuary).
Music and architecture that are from a view situated in the both sides of series chains of arts,
more than other art fields has progressed and been developed and new styles (whenever has
occurred in them) has made more persistent impression in them. If in other fields in particular
in painting and specially in literature despite these styles have been highly diversified and
often very modern, such impression does not become evident.
This circumstance is for the reason that music and architecture have been more coincident
with academic criteria almost since early old times, whether in music proportion of harmonic
scales and whether in architecture acquaintance with geometrical rules and relation, these
arts have been granted technical aspects. Whereas in painting and literature and the other
artistic fields, constant and certain rules are not yet accessible and maybe the notion of such
legislation is also an unorganized and a crude notion. The meaning of painting in this paper
is the art of coloring and portraiture that is considered free of natural constraint, otherwise
photography (or development that has occurred in colored photography) is more capable and
satisfiable in this purpose.
In music, architecture and statuary, the art is transfigured in matter or its source is the matter.
For instance, in music instrument should be tuned (to tune tar or tonality of violin and piano,
…) and in architecture, geometrical proportions and scales in stones, brick, clay and limestone
should be considered, provided in painting it appears that it is not so and aspect, dimensions,
figures and their relationship and even their colors remain abstract, since they are painted on
paper and there is no incarnation and the instruments that indicate this abstract art (paper,
plate, metal tablet, egg, …) are arbitrary and the quality of presentation depends on joy, tact
and the quality of painter's interpretation. Hence, contemporary painter disclaims perspective
rules and geometrical proportions and cubism and surrealism styles or deformation appear
insofar as this denial even occurs in colors and painter imagines the statement of his own
thoughts and ideas free of green grass, blue sky, …
If we enumerate photography and moving picture also as arts, it seems that the above claim
is confirmed in this case, since camera perceives geometrical proportions and perspective
rules willy nilly (inevitably)much more perfect than painter's eyes and applies with much
more accurate quality. In modernization of arts because of perfection in photography ,
contemporary painting embarks perhaps on somehow revolt that it seems in the first
observation in the form of passion and gimcrack of pixilated and playful infant, provided if
the key of interpretation and statement of artist's sentiment was available, maybe it could be
interpret and state one's artwork.
In literature, the issue is spontaneously clear and it needs no statement, since if architecture
opposite to painting is a constraint art and well grounded, music opposite to literature is taken
also into account as a motile art. Poem and literature neither are transfigured in matter nor
follow like music passing instantaneous process of time, but as the author of these lines has
mentioned to it in a previously discourse, they have had partly a loan of these arts and are
located at the interface among music, architecture and statuary. Contemporary poet (as painter
rises to modernize his own art to deny the previous tradition and classical current style and
according as she or he joins music or plastic art, she or he creates a new style in her or his
own poet that at the first look it seems indeed like stupendous delirium. Whereas if in this
case, the key of realization, sentiment, interpretation and statement the artist is accessible,
interpretation and explanation of his artwork would not be so difficult.
The preface of “scientific review and artistic criticism”
The scientific thought is independent, namely it does not follow thinker's inclination, verve
and mentality and has no relevance to races and species. Reasonable and inferred thought
occurs to mind with uniform and perfect manner and in this respect, the history of science has
been general and indeed belongs to no particular nation. The history of scientists is a part of
the history of science. Every scientist belongs to a particular land, whereas science is free of
these designations.
Artistic thought or sense is not so and not only it differs in various nations and different races,
but it varies in different persons. In artistic sense that is creator of art and is the explanatory of
artist's thought, thinker contemplates with ancestors' thought, her or his ailments, rejoicings,
prosperity and failures are all inherited of instantaneous life in the pasts. Such thought cannot
be independent and free. The history of art has interlaced and incorporated into the history of
artistic. The history of Iranian literature is the history of Persian writers and poets. The history
of religious is the history of races and species and of nations and ethnics. The history of music
or statuary and architecture is the history of the livings' lives, rejoicings and ailments. Iranians
realize Mevlana 's anguish and mood and Hafez 's request and seeking and these such wails
are not acquaintance except for Iranian's ear. Tavern, cupbearer are not translated into other
languages except Persian and each of these words are results and produce of endeavor and
efforts and also results of periods of search and seeking.
Each word, each sentence, each thought for writers and poets in the same time is the
representative of living in the past centuries and epochs, such issues that are sometimes
interpreted as art, literature and in other time according to nationality, the mentioned issues
are interpreted as philosophy, is different and diverse for various nations, ethnics and tribes.
Mevlana's anguishes, Khayyam's apprehensions, Hefez's wails, Zakaria Razi's , Farabi's ,
Avicenna's and Khwaja Nasir's philosophical discussions define better the nationality of
Iran rather than their scientific research. Some of Khayyam's scientific works that are the
continuation of Greek researches, despite of their competence and worth, do not have validity
as much as one of his quatrains with deliberation balance of worth.
Hence, in the result of lifetime search and seeking, every ethnic chooses a custom and in order
to reach to purpose destination selects a way. In bright shade of transient life, in particular
some minutes that pass occult and veiled away from consideration, the result and produce of
searching, seeking and exploration of mysteries and abstruse are stated mostly by familiar
words and sometimes by newfangled words and tavern, cupbearer, fortuity, destiny and
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hundred nights hangover are found. Each of these words such as a man of society includes its
particular own history and such that others are not mentioned in the history of nation except
of particular persons, a clear history for these words is also not accessible, their narrations are
occult and hidden in the darkness of the past times.
In the opinion of philosophers, scientific method for inquiry of artistic and philosophical
issues is authentic and it can be brought up these such issues like a scientific issue and can be
studied and inquired them by the same scientific inquiry.
Though this allegation seems true, it is just sophistry. Inquiry in artistic or philosophical
issues, if the purpose would be to realize the time of issue and its progress and evolutions
during the time, it would be taken into scientific account and such that the historical issues
are brought up and inquired, they could be studied. But if the purpose is just to bring up a
philosophical or artistic issue, the scientific method and even scientific statement is infirm in
these issues and justification and explaining causes in scientific method is also unorganized...
The extent of the universe – the dimension and geometry of the cosmos
The new theories and experiences in sciences and in particular in celestial physic and
cosmology have made our view and cognition to the universe totally metamorphose and have
laid on new horizons in proscenium of human's view.
Human's thought accepted difficultly the imagination of an unlimited and infinite universe
since early times and the controversy of finite dimensions or discrepancy of opinion about
inseparable part is famed in the history of philosophy by philosophers.
Now, the controversy in finite and infinite between mathematicians is evident. Thothe ugh
this discrepancy of opinion does not relate to the universe issue and its dimensions and it is
brought up in fundamental mathematics and its basic, in spite of all that it is an evocation and
inherit that has come down by inheritance since early times.
In the opinion of Aristotle such as is famed, space has no sense as in the current meaning
and situation of objects was just taken into authentic by him. Indeed, as if objects were
obliterated, their situations are also obliterated and since theoretical geometry, in his opinion
and before that, spoke about didactic objects that the properties of natural objects in them was
considered.
Progressively, since the late of Medieval later on, the theoretical sciences got succeed
eventually to develop and progress the foundation and establishment of the modern sciences
that more significant and older than the others was geometry. But this geometry was yet
discussed in Euclidean area and geometrical space was homological, isotrope and three
dimensional space. With progress of mathematics and scrutiny and inquiry that was realized
in basic geometry in particular in parallel postulates and the realization that the famed Euclid
axiom can not be proved for these lines, the denial of validity of this axiom seemed absolutely
necessary and eventually various mathematicians got succeed to found and establish new
geometries that known as non-Euclidean geometry. In these geometries, the most sentences
in Euclidean geometry do not satisfy. For instance, the sum of three angles in a triangle is not
constant and changes but never equals to 180°. Namely, if the sum of angles in a triangle is
more than 180°, this property satisfies in all of triangles in that space and if the sum is less
than 180°, it satisfies in all of other triangles. Here, it should be mentioned that if a triangle
becomes small or big, this property does not change, just the amount of mentioned summation
becomes more or less. In these non-Euclidean geometries, there exists no similar shapes and
can not for instance enlarge an image or picture, however, if difference between angles of
two triangles is closer to each other and their two sides are held proportional, the third side
remains more or less proportional and two triangles seem almost similar but the definite
and certain similarity such that exists in Euclidean geommetry, does not exists in these
geometries.
This introduction is hence considered as we will see later, in order to determine the kind of
physical space, we will require this introductions.
The development of geometry, at the beginning of the 20th century exceeded also more
than this step and with inquiry in base and fundamental in one hand and definitions and
introductions in other hand, it appears that the coincidence of straight line that conjoins
two points, with the shortest distance between those two points, is not necessary, namely,
geometries can be founded that in those, a line (curve) could be drawn between two given
points such that would be the shortest way between those points and the other way could
be the same straight line. Namely, if a mobile moves from a point to another point, its
prollongation remains stable and does not change.
The history of science begins freom the history of mathematics and the other human's
sciences have developed and progressed under the shade of progress in mathematics. The
foundations and establishment of various geometries that was briefly mentioned, becomes the
introduction of human's development and progress.
Since the mid-19th century, physicists' and astronomers' inquiries and investigations have
confronted dificulties and problems that the rules and principles of classic physics were not
able to explain, interpret, comment and state them and it made inevitably necessary to revise
the basic of these principals and that was all to make to establish and found the relativity
principle and eventually the concepts of time and physical space missed its primary meanings.
The most significant problem was to be constant the speed of light and in general the speed
of transfer and diffusion of electromagnetic waves. And briefly it can be taken affidavit for
instance by well known Michelson 's and Morely 's experiences. The base of this experience
is on the principle that is called in Newtonian classical mechanics as the principle of speeds
combinations. For instance, if a boat is abandoned in water flow in a river, it will move with
the same speed of river flow and an observer that has stood on the beach, can determine the
speed of boat and thus the speed of water.
We suppose such that the speed of river flow is 10 meter in hour, so for observer the boat
will move with the same speed 10 meter in hour. Now we suppose that oarsmen have sat
in boat and by roaing, they drive boat in stationary water with 70 meter in hour. If these
oarsmen make boat to move with the same speed in mentioned river, according to Newtonian
mechanics principle if they oar in the same direct of river, for observer on beach, the moving
of boat seems 80 meter in hour, though boat is driven by oarsmen with speed 70 meter in
hour and river flows in the same direct of boat with speed 10 meter in hour and consequently
the speed of boat will be the sum of two speeds for observer. Whereas if oarsmen unlikely
oar boat in opposite direct of water flow, for observer on beach the speed of boat will seem
60 meter in hour. The experience in the case of light and measurement its speed does not
corroborate this principle, however, the tensional speed of light transferor environment is
considerable large amount. Indeed, the electromagnetic waves do not follow Newtonian
mechanics principle.
The other problem that was not interpreted and commented with basic principles of classical
physic, was the problem of being postponed Mercury perigee and tendency of star spectrum
toward the infrared.
In revision that in basics of natural sciences was fulfilled, th famed scientists have attempted,
but eventually, the solution of this problem and resolving of difficulties be accomplished by
Einstein's genius. The statement of firm and scientifical Einstein's relativity principles is not
possible except by mathematical language and it is not contained here in the comprehension
of these words and I try to mention briefly for readers its more or less perceptible results in
particular from the aspect of the universe organization.
Before the explanation of the issue, I have to mention two points:
1. To confine the dimensions to three dimensions is not the result of nature of space or
objects, but it is just the human's experimental possible in the three dimensions. In
other words, we can say that man has created three dimensional space. For instance,
human's maintaining balance system such as tactile sense, sense of sight and in
particular half crescent channels in ears that balance maintaining is accomplished by
them (in darkness the possibility of balance maintaining is the result of these channels)
have been created as three dimensional and indeed it is our experiences that build a
three dimensional space. The imagination of spaces with more dimensions is possible
and the lack of contradiction that is observed in the multidimensional geometries,
makes indisputable this possibility.
2. In non-Euclidean geometries that have been mentioned synoptically at the first of
these words, it can be founded spaces that are closed, surrounded and however infinite
or unlimited. For instance, it can be drawn a closed curve in the plane such that its
surrounded surface is closed but the perimeter of this curve is unlimited.
From these two introductions, it can be easily realized that perhaps problems and questions
such as:
1. what is the beyond of the universe?
2. Where does space end?
3. Are the universe and dimensions finite or infinite? That seems apparently reasonable
and meaningful but indeed is meaningless and absurd.
Now, we can state synoptically the results of Einstein's relativity principle about
physical universe.
In the opinion of Newton, the space and bodies were realized and determined whereas
time was interpreted as a subjective and conceivable issue. Furthermore, the space and
time that one was realized and the other was conceivable, both of them were absolute
and independent from each other. Namely, their scale and measuring did not depend
on observer's quiescince or moving situation. Time or local interval were considered
as two uniform issues for everyone in everywhere.
Einstein's principle denies all of these elements. Firstly, each of space and time alone has no
authenticity and realization but rather the fact of nature is a mixed both of them. However,
it can be imagined or perhaps described each of these by abstraction and abruption, but the
possibility of experience, sclae and measuring the mixed part of them that in terms of Einstein
is called space-time, is not possible. Secondly, according to this introduction, abstract and
absolute measuring is abstained from these two factors, therefore time or local interval of two
supposed issues will change according to the observer's situation and moving.
Einstein's space-time seems thus similar to 4-dimensional mathematical space. In the first
model of the universe, the time dimension of the universe seems infinite and direct. Whereas
the local dimensions are closed and surrounded but infinite. Light that emits from a point
in the universe, will come back eventually again to this point and this time dimension is
representative of diameter in Einstein's universe and is farther up miliard miliard years.
The other model of the universe has been planed by Danish astronomer De Sitter in that the
universe is hyperbolic, time and local dimensions are all infinite but none of them are direct.
In these two models, there exist areas in the universe in that time is stationary and in french
term , it is called “Les Zones du temps stationnaire”. In these areas, there is no motion and no
moving. Indestructible supremacy of time has no sovereignty in these areas.
The progress of physics and in particular astrophysics showed that indeed all stars keep away
from each other and at the beginning such a thing is immutable. For instance, if some points
move on the surface a sphere, they all cannot keep away from each other and some of them
have to approach the others. This evident issue made revise in the mentioned models of the
universe and to bring up the theory of expanded universe. In the instance that was mentioned,
if some points have been drawn on the surface of a sphere (or a closed convex surface) like
a balloon and a child blows in it, since the surface of sphere expands, it seems so that these
points keep away from each other. The model of expanded universe has been founded by
Eddington and his student, the famed Belgian priest mathematician George Lemaitre . In this
model, the local dimensions of the universe is every moment changeable. In Einstein's and De
Sitter's models, the local dimensions (i.e. the abstarct three dimensional space that is obtained
in the universe after abstraction by eliminating timedimension) was immutable but in George
Lemaitre's model, this local dimension is a function of time in terms of mathematicians.
Expanded universe cannot always expand more and there exists border for this expansion that
at that time the universe will collapse and will repeat the primary chaos. According to George
Lemaitre's computations, the universe is now close to this border of desolation and perhaps
miliards years after this will fall down and collapse.
Here, it is not irrelevant that after mentioning an introduction, it is pointed out to recent
astronomical observations. Matter possesses the property of expansion, diluted and as well
contraction and density. Namely it can be put an object under pressing and reduced its
volume and consequently made it more condensed and denser or as the result of reduction of
pressure and some other physical factors, its volume can be increased and made the object
more expanded and diluted. But anyway, these two have border possibility, namely, as if an
object expands so much it will consequently explode, also as if an object is compressed more
than permitted, i.e, in the both cases of unlimited expansion or pressing, the object becomes
unstable and maybe easily collapse.
Recent astronomical observations, in particular the modern science radio astronomy has
observed dead extinct suns in dark areas of the universe that due to extinct, visible waves are
not emitted by them. These suns are so compressed and heavy that some of them are smaller
than the moon of the earth and thousands thousand times are more heavy than the sun, for
instance, each cubic centimeter of these suns has about 700 kg mass. These suns are in border
of their own unstable explosion and eventually they will explode and perhaps will become in
the form of spiral galaxies. In George Lemaitre's system, these compressions of extinct suns
are the result of the expansion universe and the statement of quality is out of comprehension
of these words.
12
The universe has boarder in other aspect and that is the primary elements that form matter in
one side and enormous galaxies and nebulars on the other side and inscrutable relationship
of compass matter in suns that emits electrons and the other particles in the space and some
fameless stars attract and compress them and eventually they abandon unstable compressed
matter in cycle of physical transformation into its own cosmological predestination. This is
another story and with honorable readers' permission, I finish word here.
1This book is a collection of eighteen essays that has been published by “Dehkhoda Publication House“ in 19??.
The essays of the book are either lectures that were given by Professor Hashtroudi in various assemblies or
articles that had been already inserted and published in press.
2Iranian musical instrument
3Jalal ad-Din Mohammad Balkhi also known as Rumi or Mevlana (1207-1273)
4Khawja Shamsu Din Mohammad Hafez Shirazi(1325/6-1389/90)
5Mohammad ibn Zakariya Razi (865-925)
6Abu Nasr Mohammad ibn Mohammad Farabi(872-950)
7Abu Ali al-Hossein ibn Abdollah ibn Sina known as ibn Sina or Avicenna (980-1037)
8Khwaja Mohammad ibn Mohammad ibn Hasan Tusi (1201-1274)
9Albert Abraham Michelson(1852-1931)
10Edward Morely(1838-1923)
11Willem De Sitter (1872-1934)
12Arthur Eddington (1882-1944)
13George Lemaitre (1894-1966)
Translated by Fariba Elliee
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